speech act

CHAPTER I

BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Semantics is study of the meaning of words and other parts of language, or the systematic study of meaning. The study of meaning can be undertaken in various ways. Speakers of a language have an implicit knowledge about what is meaningful in their language and it easy to show this. Three disciplines are concerned with the systematic study of ‘meaning’ in itself: psychology, philosophy, and linguistics. In semantics , we’ll find some confusion regarding types and levels of speech acts.

A speech act is an utterance that serves a function in communication. We perform speech acts when we offer an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal. A speech act might contain just one word, as in "Sorry!" to perform an apology, or several words or sentences: "I’m sorry I forgot your birthday. I just let it slip my mind." Speech acts include real-life interactions and require not only knowledge of the language but also appropriate use of that language within a given culture.

Speech acts are interesting to me, because they are difficult to perform in language because learners may not know the idiomatic expressions or cultural norms in various language or they may transfer their first language rules and conventions into the another language that has different purposes , assuming that such rules are universal. Because the natural tendency for language learners is to fall back on what they know to be appropriate in their language, it is important that these learners understand exactly what they do in that language in order to be able to recognize what is transferable to other languages..For levels of speech acts, emphasis is on the different stages of interaction between the speaker and the listener through the use of speech acts. Three distinct levels are usually observed – locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts.

First, Locutionary Acts – These are observed as the processes of producing grammatical and meaningful utterances which can be recognised by the hearer.

Second, Illocutionary Acts – Illocutionary acts are the force behind the utterances. Indeed, the speaker performs these acts to achieve the purpose of communication as a statement, a question, a command, an invitation, a threat, a request, an apology etc. It is possible, for instance, to use a sentence that has the structure of a statement for the purpose of a warning. Therefore, it is possible to use identical utterance types for different tokens based on the intentions of the speaker and the context.

And the last, Perculationary Acts – These are the effects of the speaker’s utterance on the behaviour of the hearer. They are the acts performed by the hearer as a result of the effect of the speaker’s utterances. It is assumed, for instance, that the hearer will respond to a question of the speaker in a specific way, or behave in accordance with the demands of the context.It should be noted that the illocutionary force is the intended effect of an utterance on the hearer from the point of view of the speaker.

The perlocutionary effect is the actual effect of the speaker’s utterance on the action, behaviour, attitude or belief of the hearer. Maximum communication is achieved when there is illocutionary uptake. This situation arises when the listener understands the intended effect of the speaker. This demand is at the core of semantics since meaning must be shared.

In this paper the I’ll try to describe different approaches to the investigation of meaning. Linguistic semantics is concerned with what knowledge individual speakers of a language possess which makes it for them to communicate with one another. More over, trough this paper I’ll try to describe more at the specific features of communication, beginning with observations about non linguistic signs and how we get meaning from them. We introduce a distinction between a sentence, a language construction, and an utterance, a particular act of speaking or writing. An utterance is typically part of a larger discourse. In spoken discourse meanings are partly communicated by the emphases and melodies that are called prosody. Vocal and gestural signs can also be the means of transmitting meanings.In this research  I will examine a distinction made in Speech Act Theory between normal uses of language and uses of language that are said to be parasitic on them. Fictional, theatrical, comedic and metaphoric uses of language may be said to be parasitic on normal language in so far as their intelligibility requires a rules or conventions of normal language such as is used in everyday cases of asserting, promising, ordering, greeting, warning, inviting and congratulating, etc.

CHAPTER II

THEORY AND METHODOLOGY

a.      Theory

The theory of speech acts has applications to philosophy in general, but these can only be illustrated here. In ethics, for example, it has been supposed that sentences containing words like 'good' and 'right' are used not to describe but to commend, hence that such sentences are not used to make statements and that questions of value and morals are not matters of fact. Cohen claims that the fact that speech acts reflect somewhat routinized language behavior helps learning in the sense that much of what is said is predictable (Cohen, 1996, p. 408).

A speech act is a minimal functional unit in human communication. Just as a word  (refusal) is the smallest free form found in language and a morpheme is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning (-al in refuse-al makes it a noun), the basic unit of communication is a speech act (the speech act of refusal).

According to Austin's theory (1962), what we say has three kinds of meaning:

1.      propositional meaning - the literal meaning of what is said     

                        It's hot in here.

2.      illocutionary meaning - the social function of what is said                           

'It's hot in here'   could be:  

- an indirect request for someone to open the window                                                            

- an indirect refusal to close the window because someone is cold                                          

- a complaint implying that someone should know better than to keep the windows closed (expressed emphatically) 

3.      perlocutionary meaning - the effect of what is said 

 'It's hot in here' could result in someone opening the windows     

According to Austin's preliminary informal description, the idea of an "illocutionary act" can be captured by emphasizing that "by saying something, we do something", as when someone issues an order to someone to go by saying "Go!", or when a minister joins two people in marriage saying, "I now pronounce you husband and wife." (Austin would eventually define the "illocutionary act" in a more exact manner.)

An interesting type of illocutionary speech act is that performed in the utterance of what Austin calls performatives, typical instances of which are "I nominate John to be President", "I sentence you to ten years' imprisonment", or "I promise to pay you back." In these typical, rather explicit cases of performative sentences, the action that the sentence describes (nominating, sentencing, promising) is performed by the utterance of the sentence itself. Following the usage of, for example, John R. Searle, "speech act" is often meant to refer just to the same thing as the term illocutionary act. Searle's work on speech acts is also commonly understood to refine Austin's conception. However, some philosophers have pointed out a significant difference between the two conceptions: whereas Austin emphasized the conventional interpretation of speech acts, Searle emphasized a psychological interpretation (based on beliefs, intentions, etc.)

According to Kasper , When the nonnative speakers violate speech act realization patterns typically used by native speakers of a target language, they often suffer the perennial risk of inadvertently violating conversational (and politeness) norms thereby forfeiting their claims to being treated by their interactants as social equals (Kasper, 1990, p. 193).

For philosophy of language in particular, the theory of speech acts underscores the importance of the distinction between language use and linguistic meaning . This distinction sharpens the formulation of questions about the nature of linguistic knowledge , by separating questions about capacities exercised in linguistic interaction from those specific to knowledge of language itself. A parallel distinction, between speaker reference and linguistic reference , provokes the question of to what extent linguistic expressions refer independently of speakers' use of them to refer.

b.      Methodology

There are a wide variety of methods that are common in qualitative measurement. In fact, the methods are largely limited by the imagination of the researcher .To measure the accurateness data of  my research ,I used observation. Observational research is type of correlational research in which a researcher observes ongoing behavior. There are a variety of types of observational research, each of which has both strengths and weaknesses. These types are organized below by the extent to which an experimenter intrudes upon or controls the environment. Scientifically, observation is the process of analyzing, applying and learning, alternatively it can also be defined as the act of attentive watching, perceiving, or noticing of a situation.

The observational method has both advantages and disadvantages as a research design in psychology. Covert observations can be problematic regards ethics and disclosure. Confounding variablesalso plague observations. These are infinite, and include observer bias and the observer effect. If the researcher plans, structures, and conducts their observation appropriately, the observational method can be seen as a most valid and reliable form of non-experimental research in psychology mainly due to the observational method's high ecological validity. the subject of this study is all of my friends in my place at Jalan Legiun Veteran No.56 Laud Dendang , that amount 11 persons.

CHAPTER III

DATA AND ANALYSIS

a.       Data and Analysis

1.      Bambang   : pait kalipun kurasa mulutku ni….. (Locution)

Husin                     : bukan bilang dari tadi, nah ni rokok beng…. (Perlucution)

: an indirect request for someone to ask the ciggarete.(Illocution)

Bambang just say that his mouth is bitter but Husin knew the meaning is Bamabang want to smoke at that moment and he give a cigarette to Bambang.

2.      Fairuzi                    : omak … bersih kali kamar ni bah… (Locution)

Zulfan                   : tenanglah wak, awas biar ku sapu dulu.. (Perlucution)

: an indirect request for Zulfan to clean the room . (Illocution)

Fairuzi said that the room was so clean but Zulfan knew what is it mean,and suddenly he asked Fairuzi to calm down then he took a sweep and cleaned their room.

3.      Husin                     : udah tanggal berapa ni ? (Locution)

Sambas                  : o..iya boy… ni nah utangku .. 20 dulu ya boy.. (Perlocution)

                              : an indirect request for Sambas to pay his debt. (Illocution)

Husin just asked what’s date today, but Sambas knew the meaning of that question and took his money from the pocket quickly and give it to husin.

4.      Ali                         : aissshhh.. pedas..pedas.. pedas kali bah.. sumpah… (Locution)

Hendra                  : nah..nah… minum kau dulu…. (Perlocution)

Akbar                    : garam ini ja nah,sumpah ilang pedas makan garam ni wak.   (Perlocution)

                              :  an indirect request for someone to ask the water (Illocution)

Ali said that he felt so spicy, Hendra knew if Ali wanted to drink and gave him a glass of mineral water and Akbar suggested him to eat the salt.

5.      Hendra                  : payah kali buka pintu ni… (Locution)

Akbar                    : nah pake obeng… (Perlocution)

: an indirect request for someone to ask a screwdriver. (Illocution)

Hendra just say if he felt so difficult to open the door, and suddenly akbar gave him a screwdriver.

6.      Bambang   : kelen ngekos berapa orang satu kamar?? (Locution)

Hendra                  : go out from the room.. (Perlocution)

Ali                         : go out from the room.. (Perlocution)

: an indirect request for Hendra and Ali to leave his room (Illocution)

Bambang asked that basicly how many people is staying in a room, Ali and Hendra understand the meaning of his question and go out from the room directly .

7.      Bambang               : masuklah nyamuknya mbas….. (Locution)

Sambas                  : (close the door at that moment).. (Perlocution)

: an indirect request for Sambas to close the door . (Illocution)

Bambang just say that the mosquito will enter the room, but Sambas suddenly close the door at that time, sambas knew what the meaning of Bambang’s words .

8.      Fendi                     : makan apa aku nanti wak…?? (Locution)

Husin                     : (he doesn’t take the food on the table) (Perlocution)

: an indirect warning for Husin (don’t eat that food) . (Illocution)

            Fendi said What will I eat, and Husin knew the meaning of his statement for leaving the food on the table for him(Fendi).

9.      Habib                    : aduhh… ilang pulak sabunku ni…(Locution)

Ali                         : pake ja punyaku di kamar mandi tu boy.. (Perlocution)

: an indirect request for borrowing the soap to Ali. (Illocution)

            Habib said that he lost of his soap, and Ali knew what the purpose of Habibs statement then Ali directly suggest Habib to take his soap in tha bathroom.

10.   Hendra                 : tengok-tengok tangki bar….. (Locution)

Akbar                    : iya .. nanti ku isi bensinnya…(Perlocution)

                              : an indirect request from Hendra for filling the gas to Ali

                              (Illocution)

Hendra suggested Akbar to see the gas box, and Akbar knew that was a sign for him to fill the gas if he want to borrow the motorcycle.

CHAPTER IV
CONCLUSION

Speech acts can be analysed on three levels:

1.     A locutionary act, the performance of an utterance: the actual utterance and its ostensible meaning, comprising phonetic, phatic and rhetic acts corresponding to the verbal, syntactic and semantic aspects of any meaningful utterance.

2.     An illocutionary act: the pragmatic 'illocutionary force' of the utterance, thus its intended significance as a socially valid verbal action (see below).

3.     And in certain cases a further perlocutionary act: its actual effect, such as persuading, convincing, scaring, enlightening, inspiring, or otherwise getting someone to do or realize something, whether intended or not.

Speech Act Theory gives us the tools to analyze a wider range of functions of language than theories based on truth-conditional content.

Significant of my study  :

-Theory                  :           To improve the problem in knowledge.

-Practice               :           1. The Principal, to make an insruction concept.

2. The Teacher, to make a map concept in learning.

                                          3. The Student, to motivate their selves in learning.

                                          4. The other researcher, as a comparison to study the same topic.

REFERENCES

James R, Hurford, Michael B.Smith  (2007). Semantics a course book. London: Cambridge University press.

Heasly, B. (2007). Semantic theory. London: Cambridge University press.

Searl, J.R. (1969). Speech Acts. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press

http://www.odur.let.rug.nl/spenader/. Accesed on 19^th of oct 2013 at 10.13 pm.

http://www.cambridge.org/9780521671873. Accesed on 29^th of oct 2013 at 8.24 pm.

Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 2013. Speech act. Accessed on 7^th of oct 2013

at 9.47 pm.

Dwi purnomo, Maslatif. (2013). Semantics book  for 5 ^th semester  English Education Departement of State Institute for Islamic Studies.Medan.